Unit 2: Some Research Methods

Unit Overview

Research methods are systematic procedures used by researchers to collect, examine, analyze and interpret information for answering research questions and achieving research objectives. The method selected depends on the nature of the research problem, objectives, type of information required, available resources and ethical considerations.

This unit discusses five important approaches: conventional or scientific method, historical method, experimental method, survey method and case study method. Each method has its own purpose, procedure, strengths and limitations.

2.1 Conventional Research Method

Introduction

Conventional research method refers to established and systematic approaches used for conducting scientific investigation. In the context of this syllabus, the scientific method is considered an important conventional method of research.

Principles of Conventional/Scientific Method

Scientific research is based on several important principles that help make research systematic and reliable.

1. Objectivity: Conclusions should be based on evidence rather than personal preference or bias.
2. Systematic approach: Research should follow an organized sequence of activities.
3. Empirical evidence: Scientific conclusions should be supported by observations, measurements or experimental evidence.
4. Logical reasoning: Conclusions should follow logically from the evidence.
5. Testability: Scientific explanations should be capable of being examined using appropriate evidence.
6. Repeatability: Where appropriate, methods should be sufficiently clear that observations or experiments can be repeated.
7. Critical evaluation: Existing explanations and findings should be examined critically rather than accepted without evidence.

Importance of Conventional/Scientific Method

• Provides a systematic approach to research.
• Reduces dependence on personal opinions.
• Helps produce evidence-based conclusions.
• Improves accuracy and reliability of findings.
• Helps test scientific explanations and hypotheses.
• Allows findings to be compared with previous research.
• Contributes to the development of scientific knowledge.
• Helps solve practical and scientific problems.

Characteristics of Scientific Method

• Systematic: follows an organized procedure.
• Empirical: depends on observable evidence.
• Objective: attempts to minimize personal bias.
• Logical: uses logical reasoning.
• Critical: findings are critically evaluated.
• Testable: explanations can be examined using evidence.
• Replicable: methods can often be repeated.
• Self-correcting: new evidence can lead to modification of previous explanations.

Aspects of Scientific Method

The scientific method has several interconnected aspects:

1. Observation of a phenomenon.
2. Identification of a research problem.
3. Collection and review of existing knowledge.
4. Formulation of research questions.
5. Development of possible explanations or hypotheses.
6. Systematic collection of evidence.
7. Analysis and interpretation of evidence.
8. Testing or evaluation of the proposed explanation.
9. Drawing conclusions.
10. Communication of findings.

Evolution of Scientific Studies

Scientific study has developed from simple observation and description toward more systematic, controlled and quantitative approaches. Early investigations often depended heavily on observation and philosophical reasoning. With the development of experimental science, researchers increasingly emphasized measurement, controlled experimentation, evidence and systematic analysis.

Modern scientific studies may combine observation, experimentation, statistical analysis, technological tools and interdisciplinary approaches. Scientific knowledge remains open to modification when stronger evidence becomes available.

Steps in Scientific Method

2.2 Historical Research Method

Introduction

Historical research is a systematic investigation of past events, people, institutions, ideas and processes. It attempts to reconstruct and understand the past using evidence obtained from historical sources.

Nature of Historical Method

• Deals primarily with events or conditions of the past.
• Uses documentary and other historical evidence.
• Requires critical evaluation of sources.
• Attempts to establish the sequence and context of events.
• May involve qualitative as well as quantitative evidence.
• Cannot directly reproduce past events under controlled conditions.
• Interpretation is important because historical evidence may be incomplete.

Steps in Historical Research

1. Selection of topic: Identify a meaningful historical problem or topic.
2. Formulation of research question: Define what aspect of the past will be investigated.
3. Collection of sources: Identify and collect relevant primary and secondary sources.
4. External criticism: Examine the authenticity and origin of a source.
5. Internal criticism: Examine the credibility, meaning and accuracy of the information contained in the source.
6. Organization of evidence: Arrange evidence chronologically or thematically.
7. Interpretation: Analyze relationships, causes, effects and significance.
8. Synthesis: Combine evidence into a coherent account.
9. Conclusion and report: Present findings and their significance.

Importance and Fundamentals of Historical Method

• Helps understand the development of institutions and ideas.
• Provides background for understanding present conditions.
• Helps identify patterns and changes over time.
• Preserves knowledge of past events.
• Helps evaluate previous decisions and practices.
• Provides context for current scientific and social problems.
• Supports development of historical explanations.

Sources of Historical Data

Limitations of Historical Research

• Historical events cannot be directly observed again.
• Sources may be incomplete or unavailable.
• Documents may contain errors or bias.
• Authenticity of sources may be difficult to establish.
• Interpretation may be influenced by available evidence.
• It may be difficult to establish causal relationships with certainty.
• Different sources may provide conflicting information.

2.3 Experimental Research Method

Introduction

Experimental research is a research approach in which the researcher deliberately introduces or manipulates an intervention or independent variable and observes its effect on a dependent variable under planned conditions.

Basic Components of an Experiment

• Independent variable: The variable that is deliberately changed or manipulated.
• Dependent variable: The outcome or response that is measured.
• Experimental group: Group receiving the intervention or experimental condition.
• Control group: Group used as a comparison and not exposed to the experimental intervention in the same way.
• Control variables: Other relevant factors kept constant or controlled where possible.

Types of Experiments

1. Laboratory Experiment

A laboratory experiment is conducted under controlled conditions where environmental factors can be carefully regulated.

Example: Studying the effect of temperature on bacterial growth under controlled laboratory conditions.

2. Field Experiment

A field experiment is conducted in a natural or real-world environment while the researcher still introduces an intervention or manipulation.

3. Controlled Experiment

A controlled experiment compares outcomes between experimental and control conditions to assess the effect of an intervention.

4. Pre-experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs

Some experimental studies have limited control over allocation, comparison groups or other variables. Such designs may be used when a fully randomized controlled experiment is not feasible.

Steps in Experimental Research

1. Identify and define the research problem.
2. Review relevant literature.
3. Develop research questions and objectives.
4. Formulate a hypothesis where appropriate.
5. Identify independent and dependent variables.
6. Select an appropriate experimental design.
7. Select subjects, specimens or experimental units.
8. Establish control conditions.
9. Conduct the experiment.
10. Collect and record observations or measurements.
11. Analyze the data.
12. Interpret the findings.
13. Draw conclusions.
14. Report the results.

Problems in Experimentation

• Extraneous variables: Uncontrolled factors may influence the outcome.
• Bias: Researcher or participant expectations may affect results.
• Measurement error: Instruments or procedures may produce inaccurate measurements.
• Small sample: A small number of experimental units may reduce precision.
• Ethical problems: Some experiments may expose participants or organisms to unacceptable risks.
• Environmental variation: Conditions may change during the experiment.
• Non-compliance: Participants or experimental units may not follow the planned protocol.
• Generalization: Results obtained under controlled conditions may not always apply directly to other settings.

Ex-post Facto Research

In ex-post facto research, the researcher does not deliberately manipulate the independent variable. Instead, naturally occurring groups or previously existing conditions are studied.

Technique of Ex-post Facto Research

1. Identify the research problem.
2. Identify the possible cause or exposure and outcome.
3. Select appropriate groups or subjects.
4. Collect information about existing or past conditions.
5. Measure relevant outcomes.
6. Compare groups or conditions.
7. Control or account for possible confounding factors where possible.
8. Analyze and interpret the findings.
9. Draw conclusions cautiously.

2.4 Survey Research Method

Introduction

Survey research is a systematic method of collecting information from a population or sample using tools such as questionnaires, schedules, interviews or structured observations.

Importance of Survey Method

• Can collect information from relatively large populations.
• Useful for describing characteristics and opinions.
• Allows comparison between groups or areas.
• Can collect standardized information.
• Useful for estimating frequencies and proportions.
• Can be conducted using questionnaires, interviews or schedules.
• Can be useful for planning programs and services.

Survey Method Compared with Other Methods

Objectives of Social Survey

Social surveys are conducted to collect systematic information about people, communities, social conditions, attitudes, behavior and other social characteristics.

• Describe social conditions.
• Measure opinions and attitudes.
• Study social characteristics.
• Identify needs and problems.
• Compare groups or communities.
• Provide information for planning and decision-making.

Objectives of Technical Survey

Technical surveys are conducted to collect information about technical, physical, environmental, engineering, biological or other measurable conditions.

• Collect technical measurements.
• Assess physical or environmental conditions.
• Identify technical problems.
• Provide data for planning and management.
• Compare technical conditions between locations or periods.

Types of Social Survey

• Descriptive survey
• Analytical survey
• Cross-sectional survey
• Longitudinal survey
• Census survey
• Sample survey

Types of Technical Survey

• Environmental survey
• Physical condition survey
• Biological or ecological survey
• Technical assessment survey
• Field measurement survey

Steps in Social Survey

1. Define the research problem.
2. Set objectives.
3. Define the target population.
4. Select the sampling method.
5. Develop the questionnaire, schedule or interview guide.
6. Pre-test the instrument.
7. Train data collectors when necessary.
8. Collect data.
9. Edit and code the data.
10. Analyze and interpret the findings.
11. Prepare the report.

Steps in Technical Survey

1. Define the technical problem.
2. Determine objectives and required measurements.
3. Select survey locations or units.
4. Select suitable instruments and methods.
5. Calibrate instruments where required.
6. Collect observations and measurements systematically.
7. Record and verify data.
8. Analyze the data.
9. Interpret the technical findings.
10. Prepare the technical report.

Pilot Survey

Importance of Pilot Survey

• Tests the questionnaire or schedule.
• Identifies unclear or confusing questions.
• Helps estimate the time required for data collection.
• Identifies practical problems in fieldwork.
• Helps assess feasibility of the proposed study.
• Provides an opportunity to train data collectors.
• May help improve sampling and data collection procedures.

2.5 Case Study

Introduction

A case study is an in-depth investigation of a particular case within its real-life or natural context. The case may be an individual, family, organization, community, event, institution, program or other clearly defined unit.

Characteristics of Case Study

• Focuses on a clearly defined case.
• Provides detailed and in-depth information.
• Studies the case in its context.
• May use multiple sources of information.
• Can use qualitative, quantitative or mixed information.
• Useful for understanding complex situations.
• May examine both present conditions and relevant history.

Types of Case Study

1. Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is conducted when the researcher wants to explore a relatively poorly understood issue, identify important variables, generate ideas or develop questions for further research.

It is particularly useful during the early stages of investigation when the researcher needs a better understanding of the case.

2. Hypothesis-Testing Case Study

A hypothesis-testing case study investigates a case in order to examine propositions or hypotheses derived from theory or previous evidence.

The collected evidence is compared with the expectations generated by the hypothesis.

Steps in Case Study

1. Selection of case: Clearly define and select the case to be studied.
2. Definition of purpose: Determine what the case study aims to understand.
3. Formulation of research questions: Develop focused questions.
4. Review of literature: Study existing knowledge relevant to the case.
5. Selection of data sources: Identify appropriate sources of evidence.
6. Data collection: Collect information systematically.
7. Organization of data: Arrange information according to themes, events, variables or chronology.
8. Analysis: Examine patterns, relationships, explanations and important findings.
9. Interpretation: Explain findings in relation to the research questions and context.
10. Conclusion and reporting: Present the major findings and implications.

Sources of Case Data

• Interviews
• Direct observation
• Documents and records
• Reports
• Questionnaires
• Existing databases
• Photographs and audiovisual materials
• Physical or laboratory evidence where relevant

Limitations of Case Study

• May require considerable time and resources.
• Large amounts of information may be difficult to organize.
• Researcher interpretation can influence findings.
• Access to important information may be limited.
• Confidentiality may be difficult in sensitive cases.
• Findings from one case may not be directly generalizable to all populations or situations.
• Establishing causality may be difficult in some case studies.

Case Study vs Survey Research

📌 Quick Comparison of Research Methods

🔄 Unit 2 Quick Revision

• Scientific method: systematic investigation based on evidence.
• Historical method: systematic study of past events using historical evidence.
• Experimental method: studies effects of manipulated variables under planned conditions.
• Ex-post facto: studies naturally occurring conditions after they have occurred.
• Survey method: collects standardized information from populations or samples.
• Pilot survey: preliminary survey used to test and improve the main survey.
• Case study: detailed investigation of a bounded case in context.
• Exploratory case study: explores an insufficiently understood issue.
• Hypothesis-testing case study: examines propositions or hypotheses using case evidence.

🎯 Important Exam Questions

2-Mark Questions

5-Mark Questions

📖 Long-Answer Questions

⭐ How to Write a Unit 2 Long Answer

Since almost every major heading in Unit 2 can be asked as a long-answer question, do not memorize only definitions. Prepare each method as a complete answer.