B.Sc. 1st Year | SC 101
Scientific CommunicationSelected readings, scientific vocabulary, writing skills, scientific writing, reports, proposals and oral presentation
Scientific Communication is easier to understand when it is connected with the type of writing a science student actually does. A laboratory record, practical report, short answer, seminar presentation and research article do not use exactly the same style.
These notes therefore focus on both the topics in the course and the practical use of scientific English. Examples are often taken from biology, microbiology, health and environmental science so that the language can be connected with subjects studied in B.Sc.
The course develops the student's ability to read, understand, organize and communicate scientific information. Important areas include scientific vocabulary, sentence construction, paragraphs, essays, reports, presentations and other forms of academic writing.
Technical Communication - Meenakshi Raman and Sangeeta Sharma, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2012.
Selected readings from Learning English, studied with scientific vocabulary and practical examples.
Human beings have observed the sky since ancient times. The regular movement of the Sun, Moon and stars helped early societies measure time, recognize seasons and navigate. Modern astronomy uses telescopes, satellites, spacecraft and mathematical models to study objects that may be extremely far from Earth.
Astronomy includes the study of stars, planets, moons, comets, asteroids, galaxies and other objects in space. Scientists also study events such as eclipses, stellar explosions and the formation and evolution of stars.
The universe contains matter, energy, space and time. It contains an enormous number of galaxies. A galaxy is a large gravitationally bound system containing stars, gas, dust and other astronomical objects.
The Milky Way is the galaxy in which our Solar System is located. The Solar System itself occupies only a small region of this galaxy.
The Solar System consists of the Sun and the objects that are gravitationally associated with it. The eight recognized planets are:
The inner planets are mainly rocky. Jupiter and Saturn are gas giants, while Uranus and Neptune are commonly described as ice giants. The planets differ in size, composition, atmosphere, temperature and distance from the Sun.
A star is a massive astronomical body made mainly of hot plasma. Stars generate energy through nuclear fusion in their interiors. The Sun is the nearest star to Earth and supplies most of the energy that supports life on our planet.
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Celestial | Related to objects or phenomena in space. |
| Galaxy | A large system of stars, gas, dust and other objects held together mainly by gravity. |
| Orbit | The path of an object moving around another object under gravitational influence. |
| Planet | A large celestial body that orbits a star and does not produce its own visible light. |
| Fusion | A nuclear process in which light nuclei combine and release energy. |
| Gravity | The attractive interaction associated with mass. |
Instead of saying, “The Sun is a very hot ball,” a more precise statement is:
“The Sun is a star composed mainly of hydrogen and helium and generates energy through nuclear fusion.”
Hardware consists of the physical parts of a computer system. Examples include the processor, monitor, keyboard, storage devices, printer and networking equipment.
Software consists of programs and instructions that allow a computer to perform particular tasks. Examples include word processors, spreadsheets, web browsers and statistical software.
Data are recorded observations or facts. Scientific data may be numerical measurements, laboratory observations, photographs, graphs, sequences or questionnaire responses.
Networks connect computers and other devices so that information and resources can be shared.
Modern research produces large quantities of data. Computers help scientists store, organize, process and analyse these data. Scientific databases also make it possible to find information from previous studies.
A student records colony counts from several culture plates. The observations can be entered into a spreadsheet. The student can then calculate the mean, prepare a graph and organize the results for a laboratory report.
| Benefits | Possible Problems |
|---|---|
| Fast processing of information | Privacy concerns |
| Large-scale data storage | Cybersecurity risks |
| Rapid communication | Spread of false information |
| Access to scientific literature | Dependence on digital systems |
Microorganisms are not all harmful. Many are useful in food production, biotechnology, environmental processes and normal human physiology. Some bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites, however, cause infectious diseases.
The microorganisms normally associated with the human body form part of the microbiota. Some microorganisms are harmless or beneficial under normal conditions, whereas pathogenic microorganisms can cause disease when they enter a susceptible host and overcome protective mechanisms.
Health information has to be both scientifically correct and easy for the intended audience to understand. A message written for a medical laboratory student may contain technical terminology, whereas information prepared for the general public may require simpler language.
Biotic components are the living components of an environment. They include plants, animals, microorganisms and humans.
Abiotic components are non-living factors such as air, water, soil, temperature, light, minerals, pH and humidity.
An ecosystem is a functional unit in which organisms interact with one another and with their physical surroundings.
In a pond ecosystem, algae and aquatic plants act as producers. Animals feed on plants or other animals, while microorganisms decompose dead organic matter. Water, oxygen, temperature and nutrients influence the organisms living in the pond.
Pollution occurs when harmful substances or forms of energy enter the environment and produce undesirable effects.
Environmental protection involves reducing pollution, treating waste, conserving natural resources and protecting biodiversity.
Writing, paragraph development and selected scientific and social themes from Improve Your Writing.
Scientific writing depends heavily on clear sentences. A sentence may contain correct scientific information but still be difficult to understand if the ideas are badly arranged.
The subject tells us who or what the sentence is about. The predicate gives information about the subject and normally contains the verb.
The researcher examined the water sample.
Subject: The researcher
Predicate: examined the water sample
A simple sentence contains one independent clause.
A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses joined appropriately.
A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
This contains at least two independent clauses together with one or more dependent clauses.
There are many bacteria which are found in water and they can sometimes be dangerous to people.
Better:Water may contain pathogenic bacteria that pose a risk to human health.
The idea of scientific temperament is closely related to the way people approach knowledge. Scientific thinking does not mean knowing every scientific fact. It means being willing to observe, question, examine evidence and change a conclusion when reliable evidence shows that the original conclusion was wrong.
Scientific temperament is an attitude that encourages observation, questioning, logical reasoning, evidence-based thinking and a willingness to correct mistakes.
Scientific thinking encourages people to separate observations from assumptions. A claim is not considered reliable merely because it has been repeated many times.
Suppose a student believes that one treatment makes a plant grow faster. Instead of judging the treatment from one plant, the student can compare treated and untreated plants under similar conditions and measure their growth.
The measurement provides stronger evidence than a statement such as “the treated plant looked healthier.”
Laboratory work gives a simple example of scientific temperament. If a culture produces an unexpected result, the student should not simply change the result to match the expected observation. Possible causes should be considered.
Unity means that every sentence contributes to the same main idea. A paragraph about water pollution should not suddenly change to an unrelated discussion of computer hardware.
Coherence means that ideas are arranged logically and connected clearly. Words such as therefore, however, because, in addition, as a result and for example can help connect ideas when they are used appropriately.
In an inductive paragraph, particular observations or supporting information are presented before the general conclusion.
Several households in an area dispose of untreated wastewater directly into a nearby stream. Plastic materials and other solid waste are also observed along the banks. During rainfall, additional waste is carried into the stream. These observations show that improper waste disposal is an important source of water pollution in the area.
In a deductive paragraph, the main idea is normally presented first, followed by supporting details and examples.
Improper waste disposal can seriously affect water quality. Household wastewater may contain organic matter, microorganisms and chemicals. Solid waste can block drainage systems and may release harmful substances as it decomposes. During rainfall, pollutants can also be carried into rivers and streams.
| Inductive | Deductive |
|---|---|
| Moves from particular information toward a general conclusion. | Begins with a general statement and develops it with details. |
| The main conclusion usually appears toward the end. | The main idea usually appears near the beginning. |
| Evidence leads the reader toward the conclusion. | Evidence supports the stated idea. |
This theme deals with human attempts to understand the universe, scientific reasoning and questions of belief. A major point for scientific communication is the difference between an explanation supported by evidence and an explanation that has not been tested.
Before modern scientific methods developed, natural events were often explained through traditions, stories and beliefs. As science developed, many phenomena began to receive explanations based on observation and physical processes.
Scientific inquiry involves observation, questioning, measurement, testing and reasoning. Scientific explanations are open to revision when new evidence becomes available.
If an unusual result appears in a laboratory experiment, the first step is not to decide that the result is impossible. The student should check the sample, method, equipment, conditions and observations before reaching a conclusion.
Pollution is a major environmental problem because human activities can introduce substances into air, water and soil faster than natural processes can remove or transform them.
Pollution is the introduction of substances or forms of energy into the environment in conditions that cause or may cause harmful effects. Pollutants may be chemical, physical or biological.
| Type | Examples of Sources | Possible Effects |
|---|---|---|
| Air | Vehicles, industries, combustion | Respiratory and environmental effects |
| Water | Sewage, industrial discharge, agricultural runoff | Water quality deterioration and disease risks |
| Soil | Waste, chemicals, industrial residues | Reduced soil quality and ecological effects |
| Noise | Traffic, machinery, construction | Disturbance and health effects |
The term “super pollution” can be understood as pollution occurring on a very large scale or involving a combination of pollutants and serious environmental consequences. The important point is that pollution can become difficult to control when multiple sources operate together.
Untreated sewage can introduce organic matter and microorganisms into water. Increased microbial decomposition can consume dissolved oxygen, which may affect aquatic organisms.
Science has a direct connection with human survival. Knowledge of biology, medicine, agriculture, chemistry, physics and environmental science has helped people understand problems that directly affect food, health, water and living conditions.
Scientific knowledge helps improve crop production, food preservation, fermentation, food safety and nutrition. Microbiology is particularly important in understanding food spoilage and useful fermentation.
Medical science has contributed to vaccination, diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, sanitation and disease prevention. Laboratory science provides information that helps identify many diseases.
Environmental science helps identify pollutants, monitor ecosystems, assess environmental changes and develop methods for waste treatment and resource conservation.
Scientific knowledge can provide solutions, but those solutions still have to be applied properly. Poor planning, misuse of technology, lack of resources and social decisions can limit the benefits of scientific discoveries.
A possible plan is:
Write a short composition on:
Human beings depend on natural systems for air, water, food, materials and energy. At the same time, human activities can alter natural systems significantly.
Deforestation, pollution, overuse of natural resources and habitat destruction can disturb ecological relationships.
The aim is not to stop all human use of natural resources. Human societies require resources. The important issue is how resources are used and whether the rate of use allows natural systems to remain functional.
Forests provide habitat, regulate water movement and store carbon. Removing forest cover may therefore affect several processes at the same time rather than only reducing the number of trees.
Human beings are part of the environment rather than separate from it. Health, agriculture, settlement, industry and economic activity are all influenced by environmental conditions.
Human activities can change land, water and air. Urbanization, industrial development, transportation and agriculture can all produce environmental effects.
Environmental health considers how environmental conditions affect human health. Unsafe water, poor sanitation, air pollution and improper waste disposal can increase health risks.
Poor sanitation can increase the chance of contamination of drinking water by enteric microorganisms. This is one reason why water treatment, sanitation and microbiological monitoring are important parts of public health.
Solar energy is the major source of energy driving many processes on Earth. Solar radiation supports photosynthesis and influences climate, temperature and the water cycle.
Green plants capture solar energy during photosynthesis and convert it into chemical energy. This stored energy supports food chains.
Solar radiation warms the Earth's surface. Different surfaces absorb and reflect different amounts of radiation. The atmosphere also influences how energy is retained and redistributed.
Human activities can alter the energy balance of the environment. Urban areas, changes in land cover and emissions of greenhouse gases can influence temperature and climate.
Understanding energy transfer helps explain environmental changes. It also shows why environmental problems cannot always be considered separately. Changes in temperature can affect water availability, agriculture, microorganisms, ecosystems and human health.
Important vocabulary and language patterns used in scientific study and laboratory communication.
Scientific vocabulary allows a writer to communicate a specific meaning without using a long informal description. The words should be understood before they are used. Using a difficult word simply to make writing sound scientific can actually make the writing less clear.
| Word | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Observe | To notice or record something using appropriate observation. | The colour change was observed after incubation. |
| Measure | To determine a quantity using a suitable method or instrument. | The pH was measured using a pH meter. |
| Analyse | To examine information systematically. | The data were analysed statistically. |
| Determine | To find out or establish something. | The test was performed to determine bacterial sensitivity. |
| Indicate | To show or suggest a particular condition. | A colour change may indicate a positive reaction. |
| Significant | Important or meaningful in the relevant context. | The difference was statistically significant. |
| Approximately | Nearly but not exactly. | The sample contained approximately 50 colonies. |
| Word | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Affect | Usually used as a verb meaning to influence. |
| Effect | Usually used as a noun meaning a result or consequence. |
| Principle | A fundamental rule or idea. |
| Principal | Chief, main or most important. |
| Adapt | To adjust to a condition. |
| Adopt | To take up or accept an idea, method or practice. |
Do not replace ordinary words with complicated words just to sound scientific. “Use” is often better than “utilize” when the meaning is simply “use”.
Practical methods for writing clear scientific and academic material.
Accuracy means that information is correct. Precision means that the wording is exact and specific enough for the intended purpose.
The solution was very hot.
More precise:The solution temperature was 80°C.
Scientific writing should focus on observations, evidence and logical interpretation rather than unsupported personal opinions.
I think the culture probably failed because the medium was bad.
Better:The culture showed no visible growth. Possible causes include unsuitable medium, incubation conditions or an inactive inoculum.
Both active and passive voice can be used in scientific writing. The choice depends on what needs emphasis.
| Active | Passive |
|---|---|
| The researcher collected the sample. | The sample was collected by the researcher. |
| The student measured the pH. | The pH was measured by the student. |
A scientific report records what was done, what was observed and what the observations mean. The exact format varies with the institution and type of practical work.
The objective states what the experiment or investigation is intended to determine or demonstrate.
To determine the bacterial load of the given sample using the standard plate count method.
The method should be sufficiently clear for the reader to understand how the work was performed. Important quantities, conditions, instruments and procedures should be included where relevant.
Results should report observations or measurements. A result should not be changed simply because it does not match the expected outcome.
The discussion explains what the results mean. Possible reasons for an unexpected result, limitations of the procedure and comparison with expected findings may be discussed here.
The conclusion should answer the objective using the findings of the investigation.
Do not write the entire discussion in the results section. “Five colonies were observed” is a result. Explaining why five colonies were observed belongs to the interpretation or discussion.
A research proposal is a plan describing what a researcher intends to investigate and how the investigation will be carried out.
A good title tells the reader what is being studied without becoming unnecessarily long.
Antibiotic Susceptibility Pattern of Bacterial Isolates from Selected Clinical Samples
Objectives should state what the study intends to find or determine. They should be clear and possible to investigate.
General objective:
To determine the antibiotic susceptibility pattern of bacterial isolates obtained from selected clinical samples.
Specific objectives:
A proposal forces the researcher to think about the question, sample, method, resources and expected outcome before beginning the study.
A research paper presents the findings of an investigation in an organized form. The structure varies among journals, but scientific papers commonly contain several recognizable sections.
| Section | Main Purpose |
|---|---|
| Introduction | Explains the background, problem and purpose of the study. |
| Methods | Explains how the study was carried out. |
| Results | Presents the findings. |
| Discussion | Interprets the findings and relates them to existing knowledge. |
An abstract is a short summary of the study. It normally gives the reader the problem or purpose, method, major findings and conclusion in a compact form.
The introduction gives the background needed to understand the study and explains why the research was conducted.
The methods section explains the study design, sample, materials, procedures and analysis sufficiently for the work to be understood and, where appropriate, reproduced.
Results should present findings clearly using text, tables and figures where appropriate.
The discussion explains the significance of the findings. It may compare the findings with previous studies and discuss possible reasons for differences.
An abstract is usually written after the main work has been completed. Although it appears at the beginning of a paper, it summarizes the important information from the whole study.
This study was conducted to determine... Samples were collected from... The samples were analysed using... The major finding was... The study indicates that...
A scientific presentation is an organized oral explanation of a scientific topic, experiment, project or research finding.
Slides should support the speaker rather than contain the entire speech. Long paragraphs are difficult for an audience to read while listening.
A good scientific presentation is not only about knowing the subject. The speaker should maintain a reasonable pace, pronounce important scientific terms clearly and move logically from one point to the next.
If you know the answer, answer directly. If you are uncertain, it is better to say that the information is uncertain than to invent an answer.
Scientific writing often uses information obtained from books, research papers, reports and other reliable sources. The source should be acknowledged so that the reader can identify where the information came from.
Plagiarism means presenting another person's words, ideas or work as one's own without appropriate acknowledgement.
Changing only a few words from another person's paragraph does not automatically make it original. A source should be understood, properly paraphrased when appropriate and cited.
The exact reference style depends on the institution, journal or assignment. A book reference commonly contains the author's name, publication year, title, publisher and publication location where required.
Author. Year. Book Title. Publisher.
Applying communication skills to common situations faced by science students.
Laboratory observations should describe what was actually seen or measured. Interpretation should be separated from the observation when the distinction is important.
| Observation | Interpretation |
|---|---|
| A pink colour developed after adding the reagent. | The reaction indicates a positive test according to the method. |
| Colonies were observed on the agar plate. | The sample contained viable organisms capable of growing under the incubation conditions. |
Scientific diagrams should be described in a logical order. Start with the overall structure and then explain the important labelled parts or processes.
“The diagram shows the structure of a bacterial cell. The cell envelope surrounds the cytoplasm. The nucleoid contains the bacterial chromosome, while ribosomes are distributed throughout the cytoplasm and are involved in protein synthesis.”
A table organizes information into rows and columns. A graph shows relationships or trends visually. A scientific writer should not simply repeat every number in the table.
“The bacterial count increased during the first three sampling periods and reached the highest value at the fourth observation. A decline was observed in the final sample.”
Do not write “the graph is increasing” without saying what is increasing. Name the variable and, when relevant, the time or experimental condition.
Try these without looking at the answers first.